Category: 01. General Pharmacology

About one in 1000 NCEs reach this stage. The steps to be studied in this stage include: a) Pharmaceutical studyb) Pharmacological studyc) Clinical trial. a) Pharmaceutical study covers stability of formulation and compatibility of the NCEs with other tablet or infusion ingredients.b) Pharmacological study includes further chronic toxicological study in animal, initially animal metabolic and…

Synthesis of new chemical entities is done as per research policy decision which is based on: (i) Random synthesis(ii) Structure activity relationship (SAR)(iii) Biochemical and pharmacological insight and(iv) Chance finding. The aim of the preclinical development phase for a potential new medicine is to explore the drug’s efficacy and safety before it is administrated to…

The ultimate aim of pharmacological studies in animals is to find out a herapeutic agent suitable for clinical evaluation in man. No doubt, animal studies provide analogies and serve as useful models. The administration of biologically active agent to human beings is associated with an element of risk, which cannot be predicted by even the…

eg. Placebo response.Placebo: It is a Latin word meaning” I shall please” and it is a tablet looking exactly like the active treatment but containing no active component. It refers originally to substances merely to please the patient when no specific treatment was available.Adverse drug reactions:The drugs that produce useful therapeutic effect may also produce…

When an unusually large dose of a drug is required to elicit an effect ordinarily produced by the normal therapeutic dose of the drug, the phenomenon is termed as drug tolerance.Tachyphylaxis: Rapid development of tolerance on repeated administration is called tachyphylaxis e.g. Ephedrine, amphetamine and nitroglycerine which produce tachyphylaxis on repeated administration.

If a drug is excreted slowly, its administration may build up a sufficiently high concentration in the body to produce toxicity. e.g. digitalis, emetine. To avoid cumulation. a) One must know if a drug is eliminated slowly or rapidly, b) Stop the drug administration at the appearance of the first warning symptoms c) Carefully select…

Drug Synergism: When the therapeutic effect of two drugs are greater than the effect of individual drugs, it is said to be drug synergism.It is of two types.(a) Additive effect: When the total pharmacological action of two or more drugs administered together is equivalent to the summation of their individual pharmacological actions is called additive…

It is usual for patients to receive a number of drugs at the same time.It is a phenomenon which occurs when the effects of one drug are modified by the prior or concurrent administration of another drug(s). A drug interaction may result in beneficial or harmful effects and may be classified into: Pharmaceutical drug interactions:…

Factors modifying the dosage and action of drugs : Individuals differ both in the degree and the character of the response that a drug may elicit and therefore the optimum dose of a drug which produces the desired therapeutic effect varies from person to person. The important factors which influence the effect of a drug…

Drugs are used for the treatment of diseases but the modes of administration of drugs are different. For example atenolol is administered once daily where as paracetamol needs 3-4 times administration daily. Morphine is more effective in intramuscular route, and insulin is in subcutaneous route. The mode of administration is designed on the basis of…